Business Strategy in a Global Environment

Business Strategy in a Global Environment Globalization is the eminent icon of the 1990s, and in the twenty first century. Globalization is absolutely soaring and gearing up dynamically competing lifes real scenes. Globalization refers to the growth and status of trade and investment, clustered by the growth in international business fields, and the integration of economies penetrating all corners of the world. Strategy Paradoxes and Debates The term strategy anchors its definition basically sprouting from military fields and origins and has been expanded into the business world and context where several authors and researchers have spread arguments and debates on strategy concerning both quantitative and qualitative manifestations and processes. Strategy in business is coined to survival; the battleground and arena during a match, or a game. Jarvis (2005) highlights the 5Ps concept of Mintzberg observing the term strategy which primarily means plan, ploy, pattern, position, and perspective. The Coca Cola Bottling Company has all these 5 Ps in particular and all companies in general. Strategy is a ploy which basically refers to any artifice, maneuver, trick, or game to outwit and defeat a competitor or rival raising an anticipation of what we are going to do to confuse, shake, deter, prompt or deceive competitor to perform a move or not to move at all. It articulates the necessary steps to be done like creating a pattern (as a post hoc application), reflecting on the done action with its pattern consistency whether or not its planned and intended. Seeing the pattern means its an intentional strategy showing the pattern stems from the plan. But theres no managing and supervising intentionality. So there are two types of strategy distinguishing such intention; namely, deliberate strategy and emergent strategy. Strategy as a position is pushed with the idea and analogy from the military view, Ill take care of the waves whilst, you take care of the ripples referring on the emphasis of tactics. Position strategy simply stares its focus on where you are standing or sitting for you to view your horizon and whole landscape in the world of business relating to the context or internal and external situation. Such position projects the relation and status within the competitive arena and the existing co-operative interrelations matching ones organization, team, or department against others and rivals and the lobbying environmental demands. Moreover, strategy-as-position situates different and several players not just one-to-one competition. A company that exposes itself to a market cubbyhole and tight competition is trying to position itself to secure, to brace sustainable competitive advantage. Strategy as perspective refers to the group of strategy creators or makers with their whims, views, retrospection, predilections, and preferences affecting the organization. Thus, strategy is a body of ideas, insights, anticipations and imperatives spoken and aired by a group of people articulated in different types of conversations and of distinct degrees of importance wherein ideas and propositions are scattered for a collective forum which is either imposed or consensus. Global Market Models and Concepts and Analysis Managers must be conscious that markets, supplies, investors, locations, partners, and competitors can be anywhere in the world. Successful businesses will take advantage of opportunities wherever they are and will be prepared for downfalls. Evidently, successful managers, in this environment, need to understand the similarities and differences across national boundaries, in order to utilize the opportunities and deal with the potential downfalls. In developing appropriate global strategies, managers need to take the benefits and drawbacks of globalization into account. A global strategy must be in the context of events around the globe, as well as those at home. International strategy is the continuous and comprehensive management technique designed to help companies operate and compete effectively across national boundaries. While companies top managers typically develop global strategies, they rely on all levels of management in order to implement these strategies successfully. Th e methods companies use to accomplish the goals of these strategies take a host of forms. For example, some companies form partnerships with companies in other countries, others acquire companies in other countries, others still develop products, services, and marketing campaigns designed to appeal to customers in other countries. Some rudimentary aspects of international strategies mirror domestic strategies in that companies must determine what products or services to sell, where and how to sell them, where and how they will produce or provide them, and how they will compete with other companies in the industry in accordance with company goals. The development of international strategies entails attention to other details that seldom, if ever, come into play in the domestic market. These other areas of concern stem from cultural, geographic, and political differences. Consequently, while a company only has to develop a strategy taking into account known governmental regulations, o ne language (generally), and one currency in a domestic market, it must consider and plan for different levels and kinds of governmental regulation, multiple currencies, and several languages in the global market (Heil 2010). Company Strategic Decisions for Sustainable Competitive Advantage Arie de Geus (1997) spelled out that a company with needs has the key characteristics he called a living company because it is helping itself. He stressed four key traits: (1) sensitivity to the business environment which reflects the ability and capability to learn and adjust; (2) cohesion and identity or the ability to create a community with vision, personality, and purpose; (3) tolerance and decentralization or the ability to build relationships; and, (4) conservative financing. Strategic Management is a constant object of curiosity among psychologists and thinkers. On several occasions, senior managers are asked how they come up with strategic decisions. They have one pattern of making these crucial and company-light decisions. One would suppose these to be mathematical, based on rigid rules of logic or statistical treatments. But heres the catch: The managers decisions were product of informal data gathering, intuition, innovation, and oral exchanges in 2-way communications. These managers have the feel of the whole situation besetting their companies and their impulse always has an accompanying relevance. Their minds transcend logical rules that are immutable and mechanical and perhaps by age and experience, they acquired an almost instantaneous and discrimination of what is effective and practical. They give a whole new meaning to the words feeling, judgment, common sense, proportion, balance, and appropriateness. They use these terms to effect viable ac tions that would sustain their companies in the tests of domestic or external competition, recession, changing market attitudes, inflation, to mention only the majors. These street-smart guys are not much into science when they make a decision. Instead, they stay at the helm of art which is a combination of wisdom, experience, common sense, and a lot of prudence and daring. Senior managers usually see problems of their companies as big opportunities in disguise. They remain flexible in finding ways but that does not mean foolish weighing the indefinite till the situation clears or worsens. They are flexible in making solutions to give provisions for modifications, adjustments, shifts, or even u-turn without compromising company principles. They are not namby-pambies who are easily swayed by fashion. They are as hard as nails on standards of excellence. Hence, they inspire, and prod those below them to follow suit and commit to live action. They are virtuosos in motivating people and so people tick to grow the limbs of their action plans and visions. It was noted in many studies conducted in most industrialized countries that executives are investing much of their time developing a circle of relationships. Thence, they gain insights and details to be applied in forming concrete strategic decisions. They have the inclination to use mental simulations and they display some gift of seeing with their minds. Intuition is the guiding light of the day and even after office hours, they would re-run what else can be done if strategy A should need a remedy. So before any pitfall or backsliding, there reserved a fallback program to reinforce the existing. Funny as it sounds but executives can sense first what they are going to do before they can explain why. No calculations but deep in their brain cells and feeling, this is the way to salvation and promised land. The way might not be a bay of plenty but they are sure when the dusts subside the rays of their strategy would save the organization. Information may change overnight and strategic planning is complex but they know how to combat challenges with concrete interventions. With the advent of technology, senior managers are more and more relieved of the so called strategic planning. Information Technology at last has created a great divide between senior managers and operational level managers. Through sophisticated programs on the computer, any manager can already function as an independent segment albeit following the general threads of the company culture. All that top brass management would do is to inspire, delegate, assess and appraise their subjects. They provide the vision, specify the substance, and direct the institutional goals. Their managers are expected to facilitate process, action plans, and fill out forms to make way for effective documentation, work accomplishment, accounting procedures, marketing, manpower accountability and networking. Executive leaders have followers, while managers have subordinates, according to an analyst. Managers are oftentimes blamed for the bankruptcy of businesses in America in the 1970s and 80s. Leaders make decisions while managers usually execute them. Leaders are careful to choose their managers because lack of leadership down the line can antagonize the growth of the whole organization. Normally, strategic decision-making takes place on two levels: aggregate and individual. Both of these are geared towards getting attention, storing information through encoding, retrieval thereof, strategic choosing, feedback and outcome. Aggregate and individual strategies are interdependent and they harmonize with each other in all stages of the organization. While it is true that aggregate is more supreme than the individual strategy, it is the individual that feeds to the strength of the aggregate. The aggregate can only sound strong on paper but without the individual strategy which is the action level that extends to clients, customers, consumers, financiers, lenders and debtors, it can just be a lameduck-a print of strong accent without teeth or bite because there is no execution by junior vice presidents, section managers, team leaders, and the rank and file. . Johnson, Scholes and Whittington in corporate strategy present a model in which strategic alternatives and options are evaluated against three key success criteria: suitability, feasibility, and acceptability. (1) Suitability. It gears to answer security questions such as Would it work?, Does it make sense to economy?, Would the organization obtain economies of scale, economies of scope, or experience economy? Would it be suitable in terms of environment and capabilities? Ranking strategic options and decision trees are the measuring tools to evaluate suitability. (2) Feasibility. Can it be made to work?. It is concern whether the resources required to carry the strategy are available and can be obtained and developed. Its resources include funding, people, time, and information. Consequently, cash flow analysis and forecasting, break-even analysis, and resource deployment analysis are the scaling tools for it. (3) Acceptability. Would this make sense among stakeholders? Would shareholders, company employees and customers respond with the targeted product or performance outcomes? What about returns? Will it yield the projected benefits by the stakeholders in terms of dollars or other essentials (financial and non-financial)? For instance, shareholders would anticipate the growth of their capital or wealth, employees would aim for the upliftment in their careers and customers would expect added value for money. When strategy fails, the probability of risks arisesfinancial or otherwise. These risks could be shareholders going against the issuing of new shares or employees and unions picketing against outsourcing for fear of losing their jobs. Most likely too, customers would have paranoia over a merger as regards quality and support. What-if analyses are tools employed to evaluate acceptability. Global Market Models and Concept Analysis In the midst of global market tight business competition models and concepts analysis is crucial and vital. Thus, any business manager must discern and decide whats the best move or course of action to be undertaken to outwit and win the market place and patrons. Several concept analysis are designed for managers to scrutinize business status to have an equilibrium and project sustainable competitive advantage among others in the field. One of these types is SWOT Analysis. A good look at the internal and external environment is an indispensable part of strategic planning. Environmental attributes internal to the firm usually can be classified as strengths (S) or weaknesses (W),while those external to the firm can be classified as opportunities (O) or threats (T). This analysis is referred to as SWOT analysis. This analysis provides insights that are keyl in matching the firms assets and capacities vis-Ã  -vis the competitive environment in which it exists. Therefore, it is crucial in strategy formulation and selection. What are strengths? The firms or companys strengths are its assets, resources and capabilities that can be utilized as the foundation for mapping out a competitive edge. Some of these are patents, reputed brand names, established repute among customers, cost advantages, exclusive access to precious natural resources and favorable access to marketing outlets. Weakness is of course the opposite of strengths like lack of patent protection, a so-so brand name, ill-repute among customers, high price structure, lack of access to the best raw materials or natural resources, and worst, lack of access to strong distribution channels. Take the case in which a firm has a large amount of manufacturing capacity. While this ability may be considered as a strength that competitors do not share, it also may be a considered as a weakness if the large investment in manufacturing capacity hinderss the firm from reacting quickly to shifts or fluctuations in the marketplace. Furthermore, opportunities may mean income and growth; like, a wanting in customer need, invention of new technologies, loosening of legal hindrances and lifting of international business hurdles. Moreover, threats are the present and intervening factors in the external environment; like changes in consumer tastes deviating from the firms product lines, introduction of rival products, new legalities and regulations, and further increase in trade barriers. Any company should not singly invest into very encouraging opportunities. Rather, it should have the caution and prescience to better understanding and analysis of a doable course of action to gain that competitive advantage by determining a blend between the companys strengths and upcoming opportunities. S-O strategies run after chances that are a good addition to the companys strengths. W-O strategies fiscalize weaknesses to run after opportunities. S-T strategies map out ways that the firm can use its strengths to minimize its exposure to external threats. W-T strategies create a defensive plan to protect the firms weak spots from making it highly exposed to outside threats. Another tool used to scan the environment in the business field is the PEST Analysis. This is a sophisticated external macro-environment probing that manifest how firm processing can be expressed in terms of the Political, Economic, Social, and Technological factors. Oftentimes, the acronym PEST (is made as STEP) is employed to describe a framework for the synthesis of macro-environmental factors. Political factors are government laws and legal issues and ascribe both formal and informal rules in which the firm must worklike tax policies, employment measures, environmental ordinances, trade barriers and taxes, and political instability. Economic factors include the purchasing power of prospective customers and the firms capitallike economic improvement, interest rates, exchange and inflation rates. Social factors involve the demographic and cultural facets of the outside macro-environment. These factors have direct effect on customer needs and the size of potential market bases like health consciousness, growth of population, age brackets, career paths, and consciousness on safety. Finally, technological factors can lower if not eliminate barriers to entry, cut the minimum efficient production stages, and highly affect outsourcing decisions; like, RD activity, automation schemes, technological incentives, and rate of technological change. In order to appraise, analyze and assess finished activities which will eventually create a companys competitive edge, a chain of value-creating activities must be in place. Michael Porter outlined a set of many generic activities common to a wide range of firms. Accordingly, the objective of such activities is to foster worth that exceeds the cost of providing the product or service. In consequence, this will generate profits as customers want worth congruent to costs. Everyone wants worth as tantamount to price so such value-creating activities is a very good psychology applied to business. If only all businesses employ this action plan, then what a better consumer base they create and a whole lot happier people they would account in their following. Another concern tackles inbound logistics which embraces the receipt, warehousing, and inventory of company input and output materials; operations are the value-creating tasks that transform the inputs into the finished product or outcome; outbound logistics are responsible for the finished product to reach the customer, including but not limited to warehousing, delivery and the like. Marketing sales are any effortstangible or not, direct or indirect, intentional or by chance-are those activities that have something to do with getting consumers to buy the product, channel selection, advertising, pricing, and much more. Service activities are those of maintenance and enhancing effect to the product value inclusive of customer support, repair services, etc. All of these vital activities are effective in developing companys competitive advantage. Logistics, as we all know, are crucial and vital for a contracting company to to distribute services, while service activities are the main focus for a company that offers on-site maintenance contracts for office supplies and machines. In addition, there are also at least four generic areas of support activities ensuring firm sustainability in the business shark-infested watersamong others, procurement, technology development, human resource management, and firm. Procurement entails the role of buying the raw materials and other essentials in the value-creating undertakings. Technology development includes studies and development, process machination, and other technology gadgets used to enhance the value-chain activities. Human Resource Management, are the tasks that include recruitement, enrichment, and just compensation of workers. Firm infrastructures are those activities of the finance, legal, quality, and management departments. Support activities are termed as overhead but some firms have sparingly used them to maintain a competitive advantage. For example, a company can do outreach works, medical missions, gift-giving to indigents, of renovation of a neglected public hospital. This can also take the forms of donating to a charity, to a depressed area because of typhoons, floods, or quake-shaken areas. These activities require definition, linkages, and coordination between and among partner companies, with the consent and knowledge of the customer base. Sufficient and effective media publishing through print, broadcast or satellite means can be employed to maximize efforts to establish such elusive state of companys competitive edge. It is a matter of concerted effort, a must-have if companies h ave to outlive and outdo competitors. A perfect grasp of interdependence and mutual benefit must be clear to make all strategies work for the betterment of the organization. If support is not totally ensured, then at least, majority of suppliers, advertisers, as well as the general public are involved. If response is not favorable, then executives have to do some side stepping, even taking back alleys so the companys goals will be served. If executives back out, then, what a pity to the organization. A company needs a sure-fire executive in the face of uncertainties. Hence, executives must see a rundown of these activities before implementation. That is why there is what we call value system. Great companies have very strong value systems that new hires would either subscribe to it or leave it. There is simply no half-way house in these great companies. In exchange, they offer palatable salaries, fringes, and other opportunities of growth-monetary, career or physical growth. In closing, strategies are useless unless acted upon, applied, or animated to make the company prosper side by side with competitive edge. With the fangs of globalization threatening to devour the weak and unprepared, executives of the 21st Century has many assignments to do. These begin from mapping out a vision, a mission, then the strategies needed to make these dreams come into fruition. Gone were the days when companies would only wait for customers to take their products because of limited choice or monopoly. Today, more than any era of the past, business is very precarious and risky. Hard earned capitals are washed away overnight once investment is not done with caution, sustainability and competitive edge. Only those who have the edge would survive. Application: The Coca Cola Bottling Company: Coca Cola soft drink was nothing but a local concoction in America. It was concocted by Dr. John S. Pemberta in Atlanta, Georgia. Frank Robinson, bookkeeper, suggested the name and crafted it in free hand script which stood the odds of changes till this very day. From a local drink, the founders of the company planned to market it on statewide scale. Their ploy is to give its package a handsome look so it would appeal to skeptical drinkers. The design of the brand name has been a consistent pattern to make sure the name will be associated with thirst quenching. Their marketers are very aggressive and effective that very soon after their debut in the drinking arena they salvaged the prime spot in the soft drink industry. They arrogate to themselves the saying, Get Ready for Tomorrow Today,-their corporate way of positioning. Their perspective to be global came into reality, riding in that slogan, Open Happiness! They convince people through ads that Coca Cola can refresh the world, can inspire to make people optimistic. In other words, they exist to make a difference. And then their advertisements are apt for specific seasons. During winter time, they show Santa Claus merrily dash through the skies as he drinks coca cola in his chariot on reindeers. During summertime, the theme, red hot summer is bannered on company sponsored parties. Before the competition could catch up, Coca Cola also introduces hundreds of other delights in its product line. But a wit may ask, how do they capitalize on their strengths, and address their weaknesses, opportunities, and threats, including antagonisms from politics, economy, society, and technology? They look ahead. They analyze trends that shape business in the future and adjust accordingly for whats to take place. Coca Cola was abreast with the Y2K scare along with giants in the business world. Hence, they won together with their bottling partners and financing allies. Concerning the current global crisis, the company is not at all hampered by leaps and bounds because it is consumer-based. The company applies core values on leadership (the resolve to create a better future), collaboration (collective ingenuity), integrity (being real), accountability (or responsibility), passion (heart-mind commitment), diversity (create more and more), and quality (doing well) as its anchor in its vision 2020. In addition, even their managers get out into the market and listen. They observe and learn. Coca Cola people possess a world view and they are curious to sift whats new. And lest we forget: They remain constructively discontent on their achievements, new markets and prospects. They are a cool bunch with a singular vision: To refresh the world. Sources: The Coca Cola Company 2009. Year in Review. Web. Retrieved 21 October 2010 from http://www.thecoca-colacompany.com/ourcompany/mission_vision_values.html Questions and Answers from Yahoo.com 2008 Web. Retrieved 21 October 2010 from http://www.righthealth.com/topic/Who_Invented_Coca_Cola Bradford, Robert W., Duncan, Peter J., Tarcy, Brian, Simplified Strategic Planning: A No-Nonsense Guide for Busy People Who Want Results Fast! Available from: http://www.quickmba.com/strategy/swot/. [10 October, 2010]. Heil, Karl 2010. Strategy in the Global Environment. Available from: . [10 October, 2010]. Geus, Arie de 1997. The Living Company. Available from: http://www.ariedegeus.com/ and [10 October, 2010]. Jarvis, Chris 2005. Business Open Learning Archive. Available from: . [10 October, 2010]. Quickmba.com 2010. Strategic Management. Available from: http://www.quickmba.com/strategy/swot/. [10 October, 2010]. Quickmba.com 2010. Strategic Management. Available from: . [10 October, 2010]. Wikipedia.org computer software 2009. Available from: [10 October, 2010].

Dijkstra Paper

(A Look Back at) Go To Statement Considered Harmful Edsger Dijkstra wrote a Letter to the Editor of Communications in 1968, criticizing the excessive use of the go to statement in programming languages. Instead, he encouraged his fellow computer scientists to consider structured programming. The letter, originally entitled â€Å"A Case Against the Goto Statement,† was published in the March 1968 issue under the headline â€Å"Go To Statement Considered Harmful. † It would become the most legendary CACM â€Å"Letter† of all time; â€Å"Considered Harmful† would develop into an iconic catch-all.Dijkstra’s comments sparked an editorial debate that spanned these pages for over 20 years. In honor of the occasion, we republish here the original letter that started it all. Editor: For a number of years I have been familiar with the observation that the quality of programmers is a decreasing function of the density of go to statements in the programs they p roduce. More recently I discovered why the use of the go to statement has such disastrous effects, and I became convinced that the go to statement should be abolished from all â€Å"higher level† programming languages (i. e. verything except, perhaps, plain machine code). At that time I did not attach too much importance to this discovery; I now submit my considerations for publication because in very recent discussions in which the subject turned up, I have been urged to do so. My first remark is that, although the programmer’s activity ends when he has constructed a correct program, the process taking place under control of his program is the true subject matter of his activity, for it is this process that has to accomplish the desired effect; it is this process that in its dynamic behavior has to satisfy the desired specifications.Yet, once the program has been made, the â€Å"making† of the corresponding process is delegated to the machine. My second remark is that our intellectual powers are rather geared to master static relations and that our powers to visualize processes evolving in time are relatively poorly developed. For that reason we should do (as wise programmers aware of our limitations) our utmost to shorten the conceptual gap between the static program and the dynamic process, to make the correspondence between the program (spread out in text space) and the process (spread out in time) as trivial as possible.Let us now consider how we can characterize the progress of a process. (You may think about this question in a very concrete manner: suppose that a process, considered as a time succession of actions, is stopped after an arbitrary action, what data do we have to fix in order that we can redo the process until the very same point? ) If the program text is a pure concatenation of, say, assignment statements (for the purpose of this discussion regarded as the descriptions of single actions) it is sufficient to point in th e program text to a point between two successive action descriptions. In the absence of go to statements I can permit myself the syntactic ambiguity in the last three words of the previous sentence: if we parse them as â€Å"successive (action descriptions) â€Å"we mean successive in text space; if we parse as â€Å"(successive action) descriptions† we mean successive in time. ) Let us 7 PAUL WATSON COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM January 2008/Vol. 51, No. 1 Forum call such a pointer to a suitable place in the text a â€Å"textual index. † When we include conditional clauses (if B then A), alternative clauses (if B then A1 else A2), choice clauses as introduced by C.A. R. Hoare (case[i] of (A1, A2, †¦ , An)), or conditional expressions as introduced by J. McCarthy (B1__ >E1, B2 __ E2, †¦ , Bn __ > > En), the fact remains that the progress of the process remains characterized by a single textual index. As soon as we include in our language procedures we must admi t that a single textual index is no longer sufficient. In the case that a textual index points to the interior of a procedure body the dynamic progress is only characterized when we also give to which call of the procedure we refer.With the inclusion of procedures we can characterize the progress of the process via a sequence of textual indices, the length of this sequence being equal to the dynamic depth of procedure calling. Let us now consider repetition clauses (like, while B repeat A or repeat A until B). Logically speaking, such clauses are now superfluous, because we can express repetition with the aid of recursive procedures. For reasons of realism I don’t wish to exclude them: on the one hand, repetition clauses can be implemented quite comfortably with present day finite equipment; on the other hand, the reasoning pattern known as â€Å"induction† makes us well quipped to retain our intellectual grasp on the processes generated by repetition clauses. With the inclusion of the repetition clauses 8 textual indices are no longer sufficient to describe the dynamic progress of the process. With each entry into a repetition clause, however, we can associate a socalled â€Å"dynamic index,† inexorably counting the ordinal number of the corresponding current repetition. As repetition clauses (just as procedure calls) may be applied nestedly, we find that now the progress of the process can always be uniquely characterized by a (mixed) sequence of textual and/or dynamic indices.The main point is that the values of these indices are outside programmer’s control; they are generated (either by the write-up of his program or by the dynamic evolution of the process) whether he wishes or not. They provide independent coordinates in which to describe the progress of the process. Why do we need such independent coordinates? The reason is—and this seems to be inherent to sequential processes—that we can interpret the value of a variable only with respect to the progress of the process.If we wish to count the number, n say, of people in an initially empty room, we can achieve this by increasing n by one whenever we see someone entering the room. In the inbetween moment that we have observed someone entering the room but have not yet performed the subsequent increase of n, its value equals the number of people in the room minus one! The unbridled use of the go to statement has an immediate consequence that it becomes terribly hard to find a meaningful set of coordinates in which to describe he process progress. Usually, people take into account as well the values of some well chosen variables, but this is out of the question because it is relative to the progress that the meaning of these values is to be understood! With the go to statement one can, of course, still describe the progress uniquely by a counter counting the number of actions performed since program start (viz. a kind of normalized clock). Th e difficulty is that such a coordinate, although unique, is utterly unhelpful.In such a coordinate system it becomes an extremely complicated affair to define all those points of progress where, say, n equals the number of persons in the room minus one! The go to statement as it stands is just too primitive; it is too much an invitation to make a mess of one’s program. One can regard and appreciate the clauses considered as bridling its use. I do not claim that the clauses mentioned are exhaustive in the sense that they will satisfy all needs, but whatever clauses are suggested (e. g. bortion clauses) they should satisfy the requirement that a programmer independent coordinate system can be maintained to describe the process in a helpful and manageable way. It is hard to end this with a fair acknowledgment. Am I to judge by whom my thinking has been influenced? It is fairly obvious that I am not uninfluenced by Peter Landin and Christopher Strachey. Finally I should like to r ecord (as I remember it quite distinctly) how Heinz Zemanek at the pre-ALGOL meeting in early 1959 in Copenhagen quite explic- January 2008/Vol. 1, No. 1 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM itly expressed his doubts whether the go to statement should be treated on equal syntactic footing with the assignment statement. To a modest extent I blame myself for not having then drawn the consequences of his remark. The remark about the undesirability of the go to statement is far from new. I remember having read the explicit recommendation to restrict the use of the go to statement to alarm exits, but I have not been able to trace it; presumably, it has been made by C. A. R. Hoare. In [1, Sec. 3. . 1. ] Wirth and Hoare together make a remark in the same direction in motivating the case construction: â€Å"Like the conditional, it mirrors the dynamic structure of a program more clearly than go to statements and switches, and it eliminates the need for introducing a large number of labels in the prog ram. † In [2] Guiseppe Jacopini seems to have proved the (logical) superfluousness of the go to statement. The exercise to translate an arbitrary flow diagram more or less mechanically into a jumpless one, however, is not to be recommended.Then the resulting flow diagram cannot be expected to be more transparent than the original one. REFERENCES 1. Wirth, Niklaus, and Hoare, C. A. R. A contribution to the development of ALGOL. Comm. ACM 9 (June 1966), 413–432. 2. Bohn, Corrado, and Jacopini, Guiseppe. Flow Diagrams, Turing machines and languages with only two formation rules. Comm. ACM 9 (May 1966) 366–371. Coming Next Month in COMMUNICATIONS Alternate Reality Gaming IT Diffusion in Developing Countries Are People Biased in their Use of Search Engines?The Factors that Affect Knowledge-Sharing Behavior Alternative Scenarios to the â€Å"Banner† Years Municipal Broadband Wireless Networks The Myths and Truths about Wireless Security Managing Large Collection s of Data Mining Models Women and Men in IT: Alike or Different? EDSGER W. DIJKSTRA Technological University Eindhoven, The Netherlands Communications of the ACM March 1968, Vol. 11, No. 3, pg 147 COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM January 2008/Vol. 51, No. 1 9

Stalin And The Soviet Union - 1336 Words

Joseph Stalin the prominent leader of the Soviet Union had a vision to transform the Soviet Union into an industrialized economy. Through the works of Stalin he implemented â€Å"The Five Year Plan† which included methods and goals that were very important in the arrival of his goal. Though, hard labor, terror, struggle, and work was put on the peasants and kulak class that was key in Stalin’s plans to achieve a Communist society. Through the utilization of terror and repression, Stalin’s Five Year Plan transformed the Soviet Union from a peasant society into an industrialized superpower. Before Stalin’s rise to power, many people did not favor his beliefs but was able to claim his power and dominance. Stalin was involved in many events with the Bolshevik party for 12 year before the beginning of the Russian Revolution in 1917 which gained him military leadership roles in many wars like the Civil War and Soviet Polish War. He was given the role as the Bolsheviks Chief operatives and his relationship with Lenin grew very close, as Lenin admired Stalin as strong and loyal leader. Stalin played an important role in helping engineer the 1921 Red Army Invasion of Georgia. These connections gained him an important position as being a General Secretary on the new Soviet government. May of 1922, Lenin suffered a stroke during his recovery in surgery which led Stalin and Trotsky to worry about who would take over Lenin’s position. Trotsky and Lenin had more of a personal relationship,Show MoreRelatedStalin And The Soviet Union1700 Words   |  7 PagesWhen Josep h Stalin came into power the Soviet Union was a large and under developed country. Mostly agriculture, a high producer of grain but without industry. Only the capital Moscow had started to industrialize but in a very centralized area in small and slow steps. The Russian people had just been through World War 1, two revolutions in 1917, civil war and famine by the time Stalin took the reigns of the country. All which had massive impacts on the state of the economy. Stalin saw Russia as weakRead MoreStalin And The Soviet Union1796 Words   |  8 PagesJoseph Stalin (1878 – 1953) was the dictator of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or Soviet Union from 1929 to 1953. In the eyes of many, Stalin’s rule was a time of terror and suffering. Stalin ruled by fear. Anybody that showed the slightest sign of objection or rebellion against Stalin could be sent away to the Gulags without ever returning. As leader of the Soviet Union, Stalin stopped at nothing to transform his country from a rural society that functioned with outdated and poor toolsRead MoreStalin And The Soviet Union872 Words   |  4 Pages(2)Stalin period was a significant period that his leadership had led the Soviet Union to develop in a very different way that contradicted to the thoughts of Lenin and Marx. Suny argued that Stalin constituted a â€Å"revolution from above,† which meant Stalin as a leader, led the people to make lots of changes by giving orders from the top of the hierarchy. The people were following him instead of initiating the changes and reforms. The industrialization, collectivization, and cultural conservatismRead MoreStalin And The Soviet Union1564 Words   |  7 PagesWith the arrival of the second half of the 20th century, came the death of Stalin and a new age for not only Russia but the entirety of the Eastern Block as well. Russia, as always, stood in the face of adversity and, instead of crumbling, began to develop and progress in leaps and bo unds. In the span of a mere 50 or so years Russia went from one political, social, and economic standing, (Stalinism) to its exact obverse. Despite the obvious changes a switch like this requires there are still someRead MoreStalin s The Soviet Union900 Words   |  4 Pages Stalin’s â€Å"revolution from above† reshaped the Soviet Union through his many policies including his Five Year Plans, industrialization and collectivization. The Soviet Union was transformed from technologically backward to industrialized. Carter’s view that history is driven from above or from below relates to Fitzpatrick and Bailes’ essays because they show that Stalin’s policies to create a new elite were prompted by the social mobility of the working class. The education of the working classRead MoreThe Soviet Union Under Stalin876 Words   |  4 Pagesfall of totalitarian regimes in the Caucasus countries. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) forms the basis of this analysis because the renowned Soviet Union under Stalin played a crucial role in coining the term â€Å"Caucasus states†. In essence, these were countries in between Europe and Asia that were more of colonized by the Russian Empire. Later, during the Communist era they paid extreme and mandatory allegiance to Stalin and other. In this regard, Stalinism became a movement to reckonRead MoreJoseph Stalin And The Soviet Union2106 Words   |  9 Pagesgreat ally leader of World War II, Joseph Stalin, had committed even greater atrocities than Hitler. Joseph Stalin was a ruthless and yet diligent dictator of the Soviet Union, whose rise to power influenced a multitude of major events in his country’s history. Due to Stalin’s impactful reign, he made the Soviet Union become a global superpower, underwent difficult hardships such as the Great Famine in the Soviet Union, and after his death, caused th e Soviet Union to go through a process known as de-StalinizationRead MoreStalin And Stalin s Theory Of The Soviet Union2062 Words   |  9 Pagesgrade academy 2015-2016 History introduction This essay is about hitler and stalin we make clear what they think of differents terms of ideas they had and make sure if they have the same answers or difference and then we compare what they think about they differents mains. Stalin and Hitler essay: Political ideology(2): Stalin s ideology is interesting and not as clear cut as many people think. In theory, Stalin was a communist, but he was not a communist along the same lines as Marx or LeninRead MoreJoseph Stalin : The Dictator Of The Soviet Union Essay1265 Words   |  6 PagesJoseph Stalin was a former general secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist party of the Soviet Union. Stalin was the dictator of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics from 1929 to 1953. His Red Army helped defeat Nazi Germany during WWII. On December 18th, 1879, in the Russian peasant village of Gori, Georgia, Joseph Stalin was born. His full birthname was Josef Vissarionovich Djugashvili. He died on March 5th, 1953 in Kuntsevo Dacha. Joseph was buried in the Kremlin Wall NecropolisRead MoreStalin s Leader Of The Soviet Union Essay843 Words   |  4 PagesJoseph Vissarionovich Stalin was born 18 December 1878 in Gori, Georgia and died 5 March 1953. Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union for over two decades. He was trying to modernize Russia and help to defeat Nazism. Stalin ruled up until his own death in 1953. He was known as a brutal leader who was responsible for the deaths of over 20 million people. Stalin s parents were poor and he had a rough childhood. He later went to become a priest in a Georgian Orthodox Church, but, he was expelled

Reach School College Admissions Definition

A reach school is a college that you have a chance of getting into, but your test scores, class rank and/or high school grades are a bit on the low side when you look at the schools profile. This article helps you identify schools that qualify as a reach. As you apply to colleges, its important to not underestimate yourself and rule out good schools simply because you dont think you can get in. On the flip side, it can be a waste of time and resources if you apply to colleges and universities that will certainly reject your application. What Colleges Qualify as a Reach If the college requires standardized test scores, you should consider it a reach if your ACT or SAT scores fall below the middle 50% range presented in the college profile data.You should consider a school a reach if your GPA falls below the primary blue and green area in the ​admissions scattergram.You can get a good sense of your chance of admission by setting up a free account at Cappex.  You can sign up here: Calculate Your Chances of Getting In.You should always consider the  top U.S. colleges and top universities  to be reach schools. Most of these schools have such high admissions standards and low acceptance rates, that even top students with strong grades and standardized test scores are more likely to be rejected than admitted. How Many Reach Schools To Apply To This is a tough question. More important is to make sure you apply to at least a couple  match schools and safety schools. Failure to do so might mean that you end up with nothing but rejection letters. Because reach schools end up being a sort of long-shot lottery, it might be tempting to think that applying to lots of reach schools improves your chances of getting into one. On one level, this logic is sound. More lottery tickets greater chance of winning. That said, the lottery analogy isnt entirely apt. If you bang out twenty generic applications for twenty reach schools, your chances of getting in will be slim. Students who succeed at getting into reach schools put time and care into each individual application. Your supplemental essay needs to present a clear, thoughtful, and specific argument focused on the specific features of the school to which you are applying. If a supplemental essay for one school could just as easily be used for another, you have failed to demonstrate your interest and you wont convince the admissions folk of your sincere interest in the school.   Also, make sure your reach schools really are places that you would like to attend. Every year the news covers the story of some interesting high school prodigy who got into all eight of the Ivy League schools. As impressive as this accomplishment is, it is also absurd. Why would an applicant apply to all the Ivies? Someone who is happy in the rural setting of Cornell University would probably hate the urban bustle of Columbia University. Reach schools are often prestigious, but prestige doesnt mean a school is a good match for your personal, academic, and professional interests and goals.   In short, apply to as many reach schools as you want, but make sure they really are schools youd like to attend  and make sure you can give each application the time and attention it demands. Improving Your Chances at a Reach School Apply Early Action or Early Decision. Admit rates are often more than twice as high as they are with the regular applicant pool.If an option, write a supplemental essay or send supplemental materials that clearly articulate why the reach school is a great match for your personality, interests, and goals.If you have a special talent, make sure your skills come across clearly in your application. A stellar athlete, musician, or politician has a skill set that can help make up for less-than-ideal grades and/or test scores.If you have a compelling personal story, be sure to tell it. Some applicants have overcome challenges that put grades and test scores into context and cause the admissions committee to consider the applicants potential, not just his or her previous performance. A Final Note Be realistic when choosing a reach school. If you have a B- high school average, a 21 ACT composite, and very little on the extracurricular front, you are not going to get into Stanford or Harvard. Those universities are not reach schools; they are unrealistic fantasies. There are many excellent colleges and universities that will be a good match for you, but youd be wasting your time and application dollars by applying to schools that will certainly reject you.

Oedipus the Tragic Hero - 754 Words

In the play Oedipus the King we identify the classic tragic hero. The character Oedipus Rex plays the role of the tragic hero perfectly. He shows the three main characteristics being talented and of noble birth, possessing a tragic flaw that causes the downfall and pain of everyone, and the recognition of responsibility. Oedipus’s first characteristic of being a tragic hero is being talented and of noble birth. Oedipus was talented because during his journey to runaway form his curse, the oracle foresaw for him. He stumbled upon the Riddle of the Sphinx in Thebes; Oedipus solved the riddle and was rewarded to be king and was given the old kings wife. (â€Å"You freed us from the Sphinx; you came to Thebes and cut us loose from the bloody†¦show more content†¦As you can see in Oedipus the King, Oedipus was a character in the begging you probably hated for his selfishness, but just had to feel bad for seeing all these mysteries unfold before Oedipus showing he was the curse that the prophecies foresaw the one to murder his own father and then to wed his ownShow MoreRelatedOedipus As A Tragic Hero1506 Words   |  7 PagesA true hero does not merely wear a cape, but this individual possesses admirable characteristics. A hero inspires the people around him and he is honorable. Heroes influential individuals from fairytale stories and myths of a real-life hero. Yet, none of these influential people are perfect. The tragic hero is clearly defined by Aristotle as being a person of admirable character, yet completely human with noticeable flaws. Moreover, this individual is not exempt from suffering. In Sophocles’ tragicRead MoreIs Oedipus A Tragic Hero?1167 Words   |  5 Pages2014 Is Oedipus a tragic hero? Aristotle, Ancient Greek philosopher whom did a lot of philosophizing, he believed in a logical reality. Aristotle’s objective was to come up with a universal process of reasoning that would allow man to learn every imaginable thing about reality. The initial process involved describing objects based on their characteristics, states of being and actions. Aristotle once said A man doesn t become a hero until he can see the root of his own downfall†. Oedipus was a mythicalRead MoreOedipus As A Tragic Hero1724 Words   |  7 Pagesstory of Oedipus, Oedipus is considered a â€Å"Tragic Hero† because of the tragic fate and effect that he had upon his life. My definition of a tragedy is a great loss that has a unhappy ending to which concluded me to state that Oedipus falls under that category. Throughout the book, Oedipus is leading himself to his own destruction when trying to find the killer of the late King Laios. So when a journal article I found published by The John Hopkins University Press stated that a â€Å"tragic hero is a manRead MoreOedipus-a Tragic Hero706 Words   |  3 PagesRunning head: Oedipus-A Tragic Hero Research Paper ENGL 102: Literature and Composition) Fall 2015 Melinda Meeds L26683811 APA Outline Thesis: In Sophocles’ â€Å"Oedipus†, Oedipus is exemplified as a tragic hero according to Aristotle’s definition because his story appeals to the reader’s humanity in the way he maintains his strengths after inadvertently causing his own downfall. I. Oedipus A. The noble birth. B. Describe Oedipus’ character. II. Tragedy A. DescribeRead MoreOedipus the Tragic Hero1390 Words   |  6 PagesOedipus; The Tragic Hero In the Fourth Century BC, a famous philosopher named Aristotle wrote about the qualities that a tragic hero must possess. Ever since that time, there have been many examples of tragic heroes in literature. None of those characters, however, display the tragic hero traits quite as well as Oedipus, the main character from the play Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. Oedipus is, without a doubt, the absolute quintessence of a tragic hero. His example shines as clear as a sunny summerRead MoreOedipus, A Tragic Hero1648 Words   |  7 Pages Oedipus, a Tragic Hero Bob Livingston Liberty University â€Æ' Sophocles presented the world with Oedipus around 2500 years ago. Never-the-less, the story remains among the most riveting of all time. He was, in fact, a man that was driven by a very high internal moral standard. It was that internal moral standard that ultimately entwined him in a sequence of events and circumstances that placed him in the spousal relationship with his mother. Oedipus, in fact, can truly be regarded as a tragic heroRead MoreOedipus a Tragic Hero1516 Words   |  7 PagesOedipus A Tragic Hero English 102 Literature and Composition Summer B 2011 Terry Garofolo 22816762 APA Sophocles presented the world with Oedipus around 2500 years ago. Never-the-less, the story remains among the most riveting of all time. Unfortunately, today when we hear the mention of the name Oedipus we place negative connotations around it. Oedipus, after all, had an unnatural sexual relationship with his own mother! In actuality, however, this relationship emerged entirely innocentlyRead MoreOedipus As A Tragic Hero1094 Words   |  5 PagesIn the play Oedipus the King, Oedipus struggles to accept the truth and lets his temper over power him. He can be displayed as a tragic hero. His refusal to accept the truth led to Oedipus’ down fall. A tragic hero, as defined by Aristotle, â€Å"is a literary character who makes a judgment error that inevitably leads to his/her own destruction.† Sophocles’ Oedipus exemplifies Aristotle’s definition of a tragic hero. In the play, Oedipus unknowingly has cursed the entire town of Thebes. He was cursedRead MoreOedipus, a Tragic Hero?2158 Words   |  9 PagesOedipus, a Tragic Hero? Elizabeth Howell English 102- B33 Professor Katie Robinson Liberty University October 12, 2012 Oedipus, a Tragic Hero? Thesis: Using Aristotle’s five different descriptions of a tragic hero, we will show that Oedipus in Oedipus the King is in fact a tragic hero and how his decisions led to his downfall. Outline: I. Introduction and Thesis Statement II. Is the character of noble birth? A. King of Thebes B. Real father was king III. Though the tragic heroRead MoreOedipus, A Tragic Hero1832 Words   |  8 Pagesmany others will likely fade away. Oedipus Rex is a tragic tale set in Ancient Greece. Greek thinker, Aristotle, said there were certain elements that would make a person qualified as a â€Å"tragic hero.† (Adade-Ywboah, Ahenkora Amankwah, 2012). We think of heroes being larger than life, possessing impeccable honor, integrity, strong leadership and having the higher moral ground. However, tragic heroes are different; they are imperfect and will inevitably face a tragic downfall. Per Aristotle, there are

Eastman Kodak Free Essays

ACC 230 Week 4 Checkpoint Nov 15, 2012 Chapter 3, Page 111, Problem 3. 16b Eastman Kodak Eastman Kodak appears to be profitable even though their net income has decreased. They show an increase in sales since from 2002 to 2004, but their operating costs also increased by 15. We will write a custom essay sample on Eastman Kodak or any similar topic only for you Order Now 3 % from 2002 to 2003. The increase in sales was primarily through acquisitions and the impact of foreign exchange rates on their holdings. Kodak’s largest holding, Digital and Film Imaging Systems, experienced a 1% decrease during this period. In a comparative analysis of the years 2003 and 2004, Kodak increased their current assets and decreased total assets. This reflects the disposal of assets such as equipment, plant and property, and complete discontinuance of certain operations. This decrease in total assets can be seen as a prudent move in their restructuring process. They also decreased their number of employees in 2004 and cut back on their advertising expense. Kodak has decreased total liabilities by 4%. This is the result of decreases in short term and long term borrowings. By paying off debt, the company is improving its overall financial position. Kodak also sows a positive net profit margin even though they show a loss in 2004. Kodak’s other income in 2004 resulted from settlements in favor of Kodak which will not recur in future periods. There is a drop in total shareholder’s equity, but they have shown an increase in the equity percentage held by the company. This seems to be the result of $104k more shares in 2004 than in 2003, since the total number of shares outstanding remained constant in 2003 and 2004. Retained earnings on stock increased in 2004. The company seems to be in good standing from a profitability viewpoint. If they continue with the changes to the company’s structure, they should be able to stay in a profitable income margin. How to cite Eastman Kodak, Essay examples

Spiritual Development in Pre-Adolescent Children free essay sample

Growing up in a Christian home has its mix of blessings and curses. The blessings are obviously the security and stability of a family whose foundation is firmly planted in the Word of God. The curses are the problems that come as a result of being swept along the river of the faith of the parents. This paper is written with these problems in mind. For as I deal with considering the faith of the pre-adolescent children of my congregation, and my family, I seek to address the question, â€Å"When are children ready to make the faith commitment of their life? My own journey will weigh heavily on the direction of this thesis so let me begin by painting a picture of my experience growing up in the church. As far back as I recall, my family was deeply involved in the life of the church. My father was a church leader. Among my best friends was the son of the church chairman and another was the pastor’s son. We spent much time together both at the church and at each of our homes. Each of our parents played a role in our formative years. This was our extended family. We were more like cousins than friends, for each of our natural extended families were hundreds of miles away. We were no different from the other kids but the bond we had held us closer to the influence of the church. So when it came to making a decision for Christ, there really was no decision. What other choice was there? So at age five, the three of us responded to the request of our Children’s Chapel teacher and prayed that Jesus would come into our hearts. Was there a change in our lives? No, we were simply following the ‘natural’ order of events for children in the church. Several years later, when we were twelve, our Sunday School class met in the pastor’s study for baptism and membership class. Again, expectations dictated that by this time in our life it was time to take this step. So one Sunday evening the three of us boys, along with others in our class, stepped into the water and were baptized. Were we demonstrating to the world that we were now dead in our sins and raised into new life in Christ? No, we were following the sequence of events of all the church kids that went before us. It was a right of passage into the next level of life in the church. Were we forced or coerced into doing this? No, we desired to take these steps because it was the proper thing to do. As I grew in my understanding and faith, I came to resent the actions of the church. I perceived the events as irresponsible and meaningless. I felt that I had been misled and was given a false sense of my position in Christ. I concluded that I was not saved during those early years and I objected to the practice of child evangelism. This state of hostility toward my church lasted for about three years during my late teens as I struggled with my own identity and my relationship with God. Now I am a father of two children and a leader and a pastor in a congregation. In light of my own spiritual development I am asking the question, â€Å"How do I measure a child’s spiritual readiness? † or more specifically, â€Å"How do I know when a child is ready to make a decision for Christ and for baptism? † So it is with this question in mind that I enter into this study of the development of faith in pre-adolescent children. Psychological Development Theory Those of us who work or live with adolescents know first-hand that they are at once impossible to live with and a joy to have around. They are moody, critical, combative, and absent-minded; they are also creative, energetic, and impassioned about the world and their place in it. However, research on pre-adolescent development has shown clearly that the surface behaviors of early adolescents provide poor clues as to what is really going on inside them, in their minds and souls. The common perception of students in middle schools is that they are constantly in storm and stress, peer driven, rebellious toward adults, moody, uncommunicative and unpredictable. Unfortunately, these views are popular myths and have resulted in generations of misunderstanding and inappropriate attention to the needs of 10 to 14 year-olds. Early adolescents are rarely perceived as being deeply thinking, caring and valuing individuals who are greatly influenced by loving adults. They are in the final stages of developing the character and personality that will distinguish them as adults; difficult, serious and personal questions and inquiries into the meaning of life and death are very important, for they play a crucial role in their faith development. In his theory of cognitive development (Table 1), Jean Piaget put forth the intellectual counterpart of biological adaptation to the environment. He said that as we adapt biologically to our environment, so too we adapt intellectually. Through assimilation, accommodation and rejection, the external world is organized and given structure. Adaptation begins at birth with the exercise of sensori-motor reflexes. Differentiations via reflexes are the first adaptations that are of eventual importance in cognitive development. As the child develops, the adaptations he makes are increasingly less related to sensory and motor behaviors alone, and may be less clearly seen as adaptations by the untrained eye. Each successive stage is built upon the one before in an accumulating, orderly, sequential and hierarchical manner. Yet the cognitive structures are developed in an invariant sequence. That is, the course of cognitive development, marked by the development of structures, is the same for all children, although the ages at which they attain particular structures may vary with intelligence and the social environment (Piaget and Inhelder, 1969, p. 153). Erik Erikson, in his theory of psychosocial stages (Table 2), similarly stated that an individual’s personality develops according to predefined steps that are maturationally set. Society is structured in a way that invites and encourages the challenges that arise at these particular times. Each stage presents the individual with a crisis. If a particular crisis is handled well, the outcome is positive. If it is not handled well, the outcome is negative. The resolution of each stage lays the foundation for negotiating the challenges of the next. Lawrence Kohlberg views the development of morality in terms of moral reasoning (Table 3). The stage of moral reasoning at which people can be placed depends upon the reasoning behind their decisions, not the decisions themselves. He believes that the stages are sequential and that people do not skip stages, although they enter and leave them at varying times. Implications on Spiritual Development Using Piagetian, Eriksonian and Kolbergian theory, James Fowler set out to explain the process of spiritual development in his description of several stages that occur in the development of faith in a persons lifetime (Table 4). He called the stage of most pre-adolescents to be mythic-literal faith. This stage is consistent with Piaget’s concrete operational stage and Erikson’s industry vs. inferiority stage. It is at this stage that children develop their sense of position relative to others in the peer group by mastering the academic and social skills. Their individuality is defined by their position in the group. They become less egocentric and begin to understand complex concepts like conservation. The child still has difficulty though with abstract terms such as freedom and liberty. Children at this stage understand the world on a basic concrete level. Fowler states that most adolescents are at synthetic-conventional faith. This stage correlates to Erikson’s identity vs. role confusion stage and a more mature level of Piaget’s concrete operational stage. They develop a sense of who they are and where they belong. A strong emphasis is placed on being part of the group. There is an even more intense need for conformity and the approval of the community. Their identification and expression of faith are an extension of their family, their church and their peers. During childhood, religious beliefs and behaviors are greatly influenced by one’s parents. Children tend to imitate their parents’ beliefs and behaviors. In adolescence, however, there is a change and a questioning of many of these religious beliefs. David deVaus looked at the importance of parental influence in relation to religious values and behavior in Australian teenagers. The results showed that, at least for religious activity (behavior), both parents and peers were about equal in importance. However, when asked who had been most influential in development of their religious feelings, the most common answer was the mother (51 percent), followed by father (42 percent). According to Fowler it is not until a child reaches the next stage, individuative-reflective faith, that individuals begin to assume personal responsibility for their own commitments, life-styles, or beliefs. As this takes place, adolescents are forced to address unavoidable tensions between the person they want to be and what others expect of them. This stage is associated with Erikson’s intimacy vs. isolation and the beginning level of Piaget’s formal operational stage when children begin to develop close interpersonal relationships, showing a willingness to commit to others. They begin to develop the ability to test hypotheses in a mature, scientific manner and can understand and communicate their positions on complex ethical issues that demand an ability to use the abstract. They can think about thinking that is they become aware of the processes where by they come to hold a particular opinion. They begin to own the beliefs they hold. They are becoming adults. Understanding the Implications and the Dangers A girl’s body can begin to take on the shape and features of a woman. She can speak with the sophistication associated with adolescence or even adulthood. Social and legal arrangements can permit new freedoms simply because a person reaches a certain age. But until the evolution of meaning becomes interpersonal, there is a very real sense in which the person is not yet an adolescent. If those around her should mistake physiology, calendar age, or verbal ability for psychological age and expect her to function interpersonally, they create a situation which is dangerous for the developing teenager. In his discussion on the dangers of applying developmental theory to spiritual growth, John Ackerman states that we can make three grave mistakes. First, we may have a tendency to rank individuals according to their development. Second, we may think that because we have labeled them, we know them. Third, we may take the groupings and define an absolute relationship between psychological and spiritual growth. â€Å"We need to know where people are developmentally, but the focus is on God, in the person’s perception of God. † (Ackerman, 1994, p. 111) I will venture to say that most churches, mine included, proceed with the expectation that chronological age defines spiritual readiness with respect to issues such as faith commitment and baptism. Within the structure of our institutions we have rituals that are performed, with some regularity, with children entering puberty. The Jewish Bar Mitzvah, Catholic and Lutheran Confirmation, and Baptist and Brethren Baptism are examples of ordinances that the church observes when children have reached their pre-teen years. Tradition dictates that at this age a child is ready to begin the transition to adulthood. They need to begin taking the faith they have been taught since infancy and make it their own. But are our children really ready for such a step? Do they really understand the steps they are taking? The most common argument I hear in favor of child conversion are based on verses like the following: At that time Jesus said, I praise you, Father, Lord of heaven and earth, because you have hidden these things from the wise and learned, and revealed them to little children. Matt 11:25 And he said: I tell you the truth, unless you change and become like little children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven. Matt 18:3 Jesus said, Let the little children come to me, and do not hinder them, for the kingdom of heaven belongs to such as these. Matt 19:14 Reasoning that God accepts the faith of a child, parents and teachers do their best to help the child to make these life decisions. But unfortunately, in the well-intentioned adults attempt to ‘hurry up and save the children from eternal damnation,† they have misunderstood the concept Jesus was teaching. Taken in their proper context we see that Jesus’ teachings were pointing not to the childish faith as being the characteristic he was seeking, but to the humility and trust of a child as being the characteristic he was seeking in his followers. This teaching is not for the children but for the adults to follow. At that time the disciples came to Jesus and asked, Who is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven? He called a little child and had him stand among them. And he said: I tell you the truth, unless you change and become like little children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven. Therefore, whoever humbles himself like this child is the greatest in the kingdom of heaven. And whoever welcomes a little child like this in my name welcomes me. But if anyone causes one of these little ones who believe in me to sin, it would be better for him to have a large millstone hung around his neck and to be drowned in the depths of the sea. Matt 18:1-6 In each case where Jesus speaks of the faith of a child he is using this attitude to offset the tendency for his followers to become proud and self-sufficient. We need to see how helpless we really are without God and how our faith must grow out of trust rather than our achievements. So how then do we assess our children’s readiness to make these life changing decisions? We need to consider each child as an individual and measure their spiritual readiness based upon their understanding of who God is and what he has done for them. Faith is a response to a need and if the child does not perceive the reality of the need then there cannot be true faith. Measuring Spiritual Readiness During a recent Texas Baptist evangelism conference held in Fort Worth, leaders of a Bring the Children to Jesus workshop said â€Å"Children should come to Jesus just like grown-ups freely. Parents should neither push them into premature professions of faith nor neglect their spiritual nurture. Teach parents that they have a responsibility to God in the stewardship of their childrens spiritual development, said Karen Cavin, minister of childhood education at Mimosa Lane Baptist Church, Mesquite, Texas, who led the workshop with Wayne Shuffield Jr. , pastor of Royal Haven Baptist Church, Dallas, and co-author of Bring the Children to Jesus, a resource published by the Bapti st General Convention of Texas evangelism division. The gospel plan of salvation can be explained in terms an older child a fourth-, fifth- or sixth-grader can easily understand, they noted. Realize children think in literal terms, so avoid figurative language, they suggested. Shuffield and Cavin advised parents and church leaders to look for signs of readiness in children such as: Questions. Listen carefully to a childs questions about spiritual matters. If the child is asking who the guy was that climbed the sycamore tree, hes probably just asking for factual information about Zaccheus, Shuffield said. Just because you know the verse follows about the Son of Man coming to seek and save that which was lost, dont assume the child is making that leap. On the other hand, if a child begins to ask serious questions about sin, death and eternity, that could be a sign the Holy Spirit is drawing the child. Explore the level of interest and understanding by asking probing, open-ended questions, not queries that could be answered yes or no. Focus. Watch for a child who suddenly becomes focused on religious instruction. Unusual attentiveness in Sunday school or during worship c ould be a signal a child is ready to make a faith commitment. Behavioral changes. Anything from a sudden interest in Bible-reading to expressions of guilt over wrongdoing at home could mean God is working in a childs heart. Shuffield said that while some young children genuinely are converted, that is the exception, not the rule. Pastors, teachers and parents can help young children by distinguishing between the natural desire of a child to express love for Jesus and the life-changing decision of receiving him as Lord and Savior. At another workshop, â€Å"Childrens Church A New Way,† leaders suggested a combination of small-group sessions, self-guided activities and large-group time for childrens worship. Life development pastor Charlie McAllister and childrens worship leader Karen Lewis from the Houston-area Fellowship of The Woodlands said they incorporate lively music with â€Å"a lot of hand motions,† drama and secular videos with spiritual applications into their â€Å"Adventure Zone† childrens church service. â€Å"We make it fun for the kids,† Lewis said. â€Å"Kids tell their parents, ‘I want to go back to that church where they sing, dance and have donut holes. ’† â€Å"We try not to make it like school,† McAllister said. â€Å"We want it to be fun. We involve the kids in worship. Our goal is to raise up a generation of worshipers. Kids learn by doing. Theres no altar call and no scare tactics. We let the Holy Spirit convict. † Conclusion Taking the information presented by developmental psychology one might conclude that pre-adolescent children are simply not capable of making a decision for Christ. Maturationally speaking they have not developed the cognitive tools they need to come to this decision. Their thinking processes are still governed by mythical, literal understanding of their environment. They are more interested in fitting into the group than making individual decisions. But this conclusion would be flawed. Indeed John Ackerman states that most adults within the church would possibly fall into this same category. Rather, when we look more closely at the evidence we come to the conclusion that there is no magical age at which a child suddenly becomes able to understand spiritual matters. It seems quite clear that the only way to assess the spiritual readiness of a child is on an individual basis. And the real problem exists not with the children but the adults who are trying to teach them. In our sometimes over-zealous attempts to bring children to a decision for Christ we forget what that decision is. First, it is the job of the Holy Spirit to convict the heart of the individual, to open their eyes to the truth, to help them understand the eternal significance of the decision. Only God knows when the time is right but we can watch for the signs to know when to open the Word to these children. Second, tradition and ritual can be quite meaningful in helping us define our relationship with God, but it cannot create that relationship. Only through teaching and discipleship can a child begin to define his or her own relationship with God. It is through good biblical teaching that the child will understand why he needs the relationship and through godly Christian modeling that the child will understand how he develops that relationship. In many ways our traditions have made it so much easier to deal with issues pertaining to the spiritual development of children. They define the quantifiable standard and make the decision easy. They excuse us from the difficult job of working closely with each individual, to assess her specific spiritual needs. But in order to achieve the desired result a life-changing decision for Christ we must break free from our tradition and begin working to develop the spirituality of children in the only way that is truly effective individually. Table 1 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTPIAGET A. Four Factors Determining Development 1) Maturation the gradual unfolding of the genetic plan for life. 2) Experience the active interation of the child with the environment. 3) Social Transmission the information and customs that are transmitted from parents and other people in the childs environment. ) Process of Equalibration the process by which the child seeks a balance between what they know and what they are experiencing. When thay are faced with information that calls for a new and different analysis or activity, children enter a state of disequalibrium. When this occurs, they must change the way they deal with the information and establish a new, more stable state of equalibrium. B. Concepts and Processes 1) Scheme a method of dealing with the environment that can be generalized to many situations. 2) Adaptation can be understood in terms of adjustment. As the forces in the environment change, so must the individuals ability to deal with them. Adaptation involves two complementary processes: a) Assimilation In this process, input is filtered or modified to fit already existing structures. When we assimilate something, we alter the form of the incoming stimulus to adapt it to our already established actions or structures. b) Accomodation The process that involves modifying internal existing schemes to meet the requirements of the new experience. When we accommodate, we create a new scheme or modify old ones. C. Cognitive Development Stages 1) Sensorimotor Stage Birth to about Two years. Infants progress through their world using senses and motor activity. The develop object permanence, the understanding that objects and people do not disappear merely because they are out of sight. Their abilities are limited by an inability to use language or symbols to communicate. Intelligence during this stage involves organized systems or schemes of actions and behaviors that become increasingly complex and coordinated. 2) Preoperational Stage Age Two to Ten Children can use on thing to represent another. They can use language to go beyond their own direct experience. But their understanding of the world is still limited. They oftem believe that inanimate objects have a life of their own. They are egocentric, believing that everyone sees a situation the wat they do. Preschoolers do not understand conservation, the idea of something remaining the same despite changes in appearance. 3) Concrete Operational Stage Age Ten to Fifteen Children progress through this stage where many of the preoperational deficiencies are slowly overcome. Children begome less egocentric and begin to understand conservation. The child still has difficulty though with abstract terms such as freedom and liberty. Children in this stage understand the world only on a concrete level. 4) Formal Operational Stage Adolescence to Adulthood Children entering this stage now develop the ability to test hypotheses in a mature, scientific manner and can understand and communicate their positions on complex ethical issues that demand an ability to use the abstract. They can think about thinking that is they become aware of the processes where by they come to hold a particular opinion. The positive outcome of the stage of infancy is a sense of trust. If children are cared for in a warm, caring manner, they are apt to trust the environment and develop a feeling that they live among friends. If the parents are anxious, angry or incapable of meeting a childs needs, the child may develop a sense of mistrust. Trust is the cornerstone of the childs attitude toward life. 2) Autonomy vs. Shame or Doubt Toddlers are no longer completely dependent on adults. They practice new physical skills and develop a sense of autonomy. If they are not allowed to do the things they can do or are forced to do things they are not ready for, they may develop a sense of doubt and shame about their own abilities and fail to develop self-confidence. If encouraged to do what they can for themselves, they are helped to acquire a sense of autonomy. 3) Initiative vs. Guilt At age four or five, children begin to formulate plans and carry it through. If encouraged to form their own ideas, the child will develop a sense of initiative. If punished for expressing their own plans, the child develops a sense of guilt, which leads to fear and a lack of assertiveness. ) Industry vs. Inferiority During middle childhood, children must learn the academic skills of reading, writing and math, as well as social skills. If they succeed in acquiring these skills and if their accomplishments are valued by others, the child develops a sense of industry. If they are constantly compared to others and come up a distinct second, they may develop a sense of inferiority. 5) Identity vs. Role Confusion During adolescence, children must decide their own vocational and personal future. They develop a sense of who they are and here they belong. The child who develops a strong sense of identity formulates a satisfying plan and gains a sense of security. Those who do not develop this sense of identity may develop role confusion, a sense of aimlessness and being adrift without an anchor or plan. 6) Intimacy vs. Isolation The positive outcome of the psychosocial crisis of young adults, involving development of close interpersonal relationships, most often typified by marriage. The negative outcome of this stage is the unwillingness or inability to commit to others. 7) Generativity vs. Stagnation The positive outcome of the psychosocial crisis of middle age involves giving of oneself and ones talents to others. It is primarily concerned with establishing and guiding the next generation, investing something of oneself in the future. The negative outcome of this stage involves absorption in ones own personal needs and an inability or unwillingness to give to others. 8) Integrity vs. Despair The positive outcome of this last stage involves the realization that ones life has been worthwhile. After a life time of facing challenges and problems, they can look back on a productive life.